Criticism of the Sociocultural Theory

principles that it represents, instead subscribing to other models. In light of this continuous debate, this paper wishes to engage with the topic of Universal Grammar with regards to language acquisition. In the first part of the paper, I will present the motivation behind the theory of UG. Following this, I will present two main arguments in favor of UG, and finally, I will engage with two recent arguments against UG in an effort to explore questions regarding the validity of the argument of UG as «the best theory» in the field of child language acquisition. Having presented a general outline of the issues regarding the acquisition of language that Universal Grammar seeks to resolve, I will now go into depth with some of the more specific arguments for UG. The arguments are connected, with the first detailing the problem of the productive nature of language and the second looking specifically at child language acquisition and the argument from the poverty of stimulus, both seeking to argue the stance that UG is the best theory for explaining the processes behind language acquisition.( Chomsky N., 33-54) c. Input Processing Theory Input is the raw language data that learners hear or read and entails a specific communicative intent. Input is the primary data base on which learners build a linguistic system. Changing the way learners process input and enriching their intake might have an effect on the developing system that subsequently should have an impact on how learners produce the target language. Input processing is concerned with those psycholinguistic strategies and mechanisms by which learners derive intake from input. In Van-Patten’s theory, when learners attend or notice input and process the message, a form-meaning connection is made. Developing the learners’ ability to map one form to one meaning is therefore essential for acquisition. In the interaction hypothesis, input is seen as a significant element/factor for acquisition without which learners cannot acquire a language.

example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, another might use tools like reminders or rote memorization. Lantolf (n.d.) stated that SCT was established on a fundamental concept that the humans mind is 'mediated': This interpretation was adapted from the Vygotskian argument that humans do not act directly on the physical world but rely, instead, on tools and labor activity which promotes humans' inspiration to change the circumstances under which they live in the world around them using symbolic tools, or signs, to mediate and regulate their relationships with others and themselves to change the nature of these relationships ( 1). Wertsch proposed three major themes in Vygotsky's writings that elucidate the nature of this interdependence between individual and social processes in learning and development. The first is that individual development, including higher mental functioning, has its origins in social sources. From this perspective, as learners participate in a wide range of joint activities, and internalize the effects of working together, they acquire new world and culture strategies and knowledge.
This principle has typically been illustrated by examining the interactions between people with disparate levels of knowledge; for example, children and their caregivers, or experts and novices. However, as Tudge and Scrimsher (2003) say, Vygotsky was not only interested in what more experienced others brought to the interaction, but also in what the child brought into the interiors himself or herself.
The second Vygotskian theme identified by Wertsch (1991) is that human action, on both the planes of society and individuality are mediated by instruments and signs semiotics. These are the Semiotics Means: "language; various counting systems; mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbols; Systems; works of art; composition; schemes, diagrams , maps and mechanical drawings; Conventional Signals, etc. (Vygotsky,137).
Additional semiotic means include: computers, calculators, paint brushes and the like, all of which are useful in representational activity. These semiotic means are both the tools that facilitate the co-construction of knowledge and the means that are internalized to aid future independent problem solving activity. Leontiev (1981), a colleague of Vygotsky, used the term "appropriation" to characterize this process of internalization. Children cannot and need not reinvent artifacts that have taken millennia to evolve in order to appropriate such objects into their own system of activity. The child has only to come to an understanding that it is adequate for using the culturally elaborated object in the novel life circumstances he encounters. (Qtd. in Newman,Griffin,& Cole,63).
Sociocultural theory provides a window into language acquisition that is useful in considering the relationship between social interaction and language development.
For SLA researchers working within a sociocultural theoretical framework second language acquisition research methodology is based upon the understanding that socialization and language acquisition cannot be separated from the interactive linguistic contexts in which they occur. The contradictory nature of language development is that the process of becoming a language user-by and large, the process of participating in societally determined fixed verbal intercourse ...-occurs through the child's manifest ability to make meaning, development progresses through the process of social interaction where the learner is an active participant in the meaning-making process through which the learner acquires the L2.2 New research in SLA on language play supports the importance of participating in meaningmaking activity.
Mahbobeh Rahmatirad in her article The Effect of Task-Based Syllabus on Iranian EFL Learners asserted: Also known as the traditional syllabus, it is organized along grammatical items giving primacy to language form. The structural syllabus holds the theory that functionalability arises from structural knowledge. Structural patterns, organized according to such criteria as structural complexity, difficulty, regularity, utility and frequency, are the basic units of learning. It makes an abundant use of highly controlled, tightly structured and sequenced pattern practice drills. It deals with Semantics and sentence types such as statements, questions, interrogatives and grammatically defined types such as simple, compound and complex sentences are seen. Morphology can also be found in structural syllabi such as singular, plural marking; determiners, articles, prepositions, gender markers and so on. (38)

II. Research Methods
Language and thought develop on parallel pathways instead of separate tracks. For example, a child knows what a ball is before his is able to say the word. A parent may ask the child to find the ball and the child is able to retrieve the correct item before he is able to accurately speak the word "ball. " This is direct opposition to Vygotsky's idea that the spoken word must be acquired before the thought or concept of ball can develop.
Language theories have a broad outline and are not well drawn out. Rely more on the ideas of cultural influence, cultural helps develop the individual in language and cognitive development. According to Vygotsky very little language and development come from biological factors. Modern psychologists dismiss this idea that cultural influences play a dominant role in development of language. "Despite the label "Sociocultural" the theory is not a theory of the social or of the cultural aspects of human existence….it is, rather,…a theory of mind…that recognizes the central role that social relationships and culturally constructed artifacts play in organizing uniquely human forms of thinking" (Lantolf, Through SCT, Vygotsky focused on the relationships between individual's psychological aspects and the social and culturally produced contexts and artifacts that transform the individual's cognitive or mental functions. Main SCT ideas on cognitive (mental) development are Internalization, Zone of Proximal Development, ZPD), Scaffolding, Mediation and Dynamic Assessment. ZPD is "…the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." (Vygotsky,86) The zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1987;Newman & Holzman, 1993) is the interactively constituted social and cognitive place where language development occurs as learners participate in meaning-making activities with others-where language leaning is a process of discovery-in-use. The ZPD as defined by  is The difference between the child's developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (86).
CLT will have strengths and weaknesses. Until we gain more knowledge about the mind and behavior, we will not be able to draw precise conclusions on which everyone can agree. For now, psychologists continue doing research, come up with new perspectives, and use the relevant information from the current perspectives. In the field of psychology opinions will always differ.

The Core Concept of SCT Theory
Internalization. Internalization is another core concept of SCT during which cultural artifacts, such as language, take on a psychological function. Internalization is defined as «a negotiated process that recognizes the relationship of the individual to her or his social environment and generally carries it into future performance». The Vygotskian interpretation of internalization is that «Every psychological function appears twice, first between people on the interpsychological plane and then within the individual on the intrapsychological plane». Imitation. Disregarding the typical meaning of 'imitation' commonly known as mindless mimicking that often associated with behaviorism in psychology and the audio-lingual method in language pedagogy, Lantolf & Thorne defined 'imitation' differently based on the Vygotskian theory as «it involves goal directed cognitive activity that can result in transformations of the original model» .

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Lantolf and Thorne argue that ZPD is a model of the developmental process, as well as a conceptual tool that educators can use by to understand aspects of their students' emerging capacities that are in early stages of maturation. ZPD is also seen a diagnostic tool, when used proactively by teachers, can help them create learning conditions for their students to promote their cognitive development in the future. Self-Regulation Stage: When the learner reaches this last stage of his or her cognitive development, the learner becomes able to accomplish the learning activities with minimal or no external support.

Critique of Socio-Cultural Theory (SCT)
The sociocultural theory of abnormal psychology focuses on society and family as causes of mental illness. Strengths of this theory include the fact that it addresses the impact that society has on individuals, it looks at issues surrounding labeling of people and it has a high treatment success rate. There are several criticisms to the Vygotsky approach. The Zone of Proximal Development is unclear in that it does not account for a precise picture of a child's learning needs, a child's present capability level, or a child's motivational influences. The ZPD also does not explain the process of development or how development actually occurs. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory disregards the role of the individual, but regards the collective.
Vygotsky asserted that the mind is not considered separate from the group. That is, Vygotsky maintained that knowing is relative to the situation in which the knowers find themselves. In turn, the theory does not recognize that individuals can rise above social norms based on their ability to bring about personal understanding. Such individuals would include gifted students or child prodigies. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory does not seem to apply to all social and cultural groups. That is, social groups may not be whole and equal with all learners being able to gain the same meaning from engagement.
The application of the ZPD in practice is more problematic. Vygotsky failed to provide much about the effective use of ZPD in classrooms (Shayer, 2002). Piaget (1995, as cited in Matusov & Hayes, 2000 suggests that in participation in the activity for which a child is not ready with a more knowledgeable other, leads mainly to imposing the partner' views and will not affect the structures of child's actions (i.e., social constraint). Mitchell & Myles (2004) claim that most socio-cultural studies of language development within the ZPD have focused on individual lexical items or morpho syntactic features as found in traditional grammar. The concept of Zone of proximal development was critiqued by Lambert & Clyde (2000) as follows: We feel…that Vygotsky's ZPD presents a restricted view of learning processes and reduces the learner's role to one of passivity and dependence upon the adult (29). They actually failed to consider the application of ZPD in language learning. As researchers, Lambert & Clyde felt restricted view of ZPD. They had rather provide findings to support their furnishing idea. Since Vygotsky (1997) argues that the role of teacher in the ZPD is to shape and fashion the social environment of the child and he/she cannot directly influence the child in the cognitive development. Vygotsky did not use the word scaffolding in socio cultural theory.

Strongpoints of Socio Cultural Perspective Theory
A theory has possibly 'theoretical' advantages or disadvantages given its empirical or philosophical basis. That's the reason why theories are falsified and continuously adapted or even rejected after a serious paradigm shift. However, possible advantages or disadvantages of use put theory in a different perspective. Further, there is a need to consider sociolinguistic variables that influence how children of different ages and cultural groups interpret adults' questions. Similarly, there are developmental and cultural differences re requirements of politeness markers in different languages. Now, we are appealing to what is commonly called the performance-learning distinction. One of the strengths of this perspective is that it recognizes the relationship between cognitive development and a part of an individual's social, cultural, and historical context (Sigelman, 2009). That explains the historical differences between cultures. This is an essential idea, since we all note the variations between the ways of thinking of each person.
Vygotsky gave a good answer himself regarding the advantages of his approach relative to theories that assume that a child cannot work beyond a given developmental level and theories that focus on learning alone. Developmental stage theories that assume that a child cannot do anything «over» their current «level» of development presuppose limitations that may not exist in practice--with the right support. Learning theories that view development as simply more «learning» tend to have no way of explaining «development,» which involves a change in the way learning in some area is occurring. Vygotsky's approach allows a teacher or tutor to find the ZPD, the «zone» in which a child can perform successfully with appropriate assistance.
Vygotsky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning. Teachers and parents can use this knowledge by providing children plenty of opportunities for play experiences. Vygotsky believed that through playing and imagining, children were able to further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world. Types of play that can foster learning include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and reenactments of real events. Such activities help promote the growth of abstract thought.
Hence it is more positive or constructive than simply saying «You're not ready for that yet.» It also allows one to understand how a student can understand new relationships that they did not understand previously, by participating in them with someone else. Simply put, in today's technological society I cannot see how education can divorces itself from the culture in which our students are brought up. To not acknowledge and work within the students' culture seems to be fighting an overwhelming tide. We, in my opinion, need to use this concept to advance student learning by integrating our knowledge requirements into a familiar environment of the student. Students need to relevance and application of knowledge in their daily lives. Vygotsky gave a good answer himself regarding the advantages of his approach relative to theories that assume that a child cannot work beyond a given developmental level and theories that focus on learning alone. Developmental stage theories that assume that a child cannot do anything «over» their current «level» of development presuppose limitations that may not exist in practice--with the right support. Learning theories that view development as simply more «learning» tend to have no way of explaining «development,» which involves a change in the way learning in some area is occurring. Vygotsky's approach allows a teacher or tutor to find the ZPD, the «zone» in which a child can perform successfully with appropriate assistance. Vygotsky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning. Teachers and parents can use this knowledge by providing children plenty of opportunities for play experiences. Vygotsky believed that through playing and imagining, children were able to further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world. Types of play that can foster learning include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and reenactments of real events. Such activities help promote the growth of abstract thought.
Sociocultural theory has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational settings. Here's how this theory can be put into practice in the real world. Sociocultural theory has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational settings. Understanding the zone of proximal development can be helpful for teachers. In classroom settings, teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level. Teachers can help promote this expansion by: Planning and organizing their instruction and lessons: For example, the teacher might organize the class into groups where less skilled children are paired with students who have a higher skill level.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's theory of cognitive development First, Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development. Another important difference between the two theories is that while Piaget's theory suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky asserts that cognitive development can differ between different cultures. In his text, «Social and Personality Development,» David R. Shaffer explains that while Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed that each culture presents unique differences. Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, «learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function» . In other words, social learning tends to precede development. Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. No single principle can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development. Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development. Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development. (Vygotsky,L,(37)(38)(39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)(45) Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as 'higher mental functions. Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory. In our culture, we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated. The tools of intellectual adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture -as in the memory example.

a. Behaviorism Theory
There are many theories, methods, and research related to the nature of language acquisition. Thorough understanding of this knowledge can aid teachers in the creation of learning environment that support the language and literacy development and content area achievement of English language learners. The theories, approaches, and methods surrounding language instruction used over the past century have varied tremendously. Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts and feelings. As my professor told us, behaviourism tends to be «superficial» or shallow in explaining behavior and learning. As can be inferred from the theory presented, much of the human behavior and learning abilities were attributed to the effects of external factors that serve as reinforcers or punishers. It only says that regardless of what behavior an individual learned in the past through the system of reinforcement, he can still be able to modify and/or change it when new circumstances offer new information. Behaviorism in general provided us much influence in the field of education and psychology. We can never just deny the fact that some of our beliefs and approaches to life are rooted in this body of knowledge. In the end, I have to say that no any single theory could ever explain fully how we behave and learn in the context of a changing environment. Other theories were purposively developed because proponents did find significance. It is now imperative for us, to go out of the box, incorporate and synthesize the impacts of these many theories. (Skinner,

b. Universal Grammar Theory
Proponents of Universal Grammar argue that language is acquired rather than learned, meaning that the child itself acquires the language on the basis of linguistic structures that are a biologically innate part of the human mind. When Chomsky first presented his theories in the 1950s, they were controversial, but since then they have sparked a major debate within the linguistic community. There are countless proponents on both sides of the issue, some presenting UG as «the best theory», others completely disagreeing with the seemingly abstract principles that it represents, instead subscribing to other models. In light of this continuous debate, this paper wishes to engage with the topic of Universal Grammar with regards to language acquisition. In the first part of the paper, I will present the motivation behind the theory of UG. Following this, I will present two main arguments in favor of UG, and finally, I will engage with two recent arguments against UG in an effort to explore questions regarding the validity of the argument of UG as «the best theory» in the field of child language acquisition. Having presented a general outline of the issues regarding the acquisition of language that Universal Grammar seeks to resolve, I will now go into depth with some of the more specific arguments for UG. The arguments are connected, with the first detailing the problem of the productive nature of language and the second looking specifically at child language acquisition and the argument from the poverty of stimulus, both seeking to argue the stance that UG is the best theory for explaining the processes behind language acquisition. ( Chomsky N.,

c. Input Processing Theory
Input is the raw language data that learners hear or read and entails a specific communicative intent. Input is the primary data base on which learners build a linguistic system. Changing the way learners process input and enriching their intake might have an effect on the developing system that subsequently should have an impact on how learners produce the target language. Input processing is concerned with those psycholinguistic strategies and mechanisms by which learners derive intake from input.
In Van-Patten's theory, when learners attend or notice input and process the message, a form-meaning connection is made. Developing the learners' ability to map one form to one meaning is therefore essential for acquisition. In the interaction hypothesis, input is seen as a significant element/factor for acquisition without which learners cannot acquire a language.
In the case of non-interactional input, he refers to the kind of input that occurs in the context of nonreciprocal discourse where learners are not part of an interaction.
In the former case, learners have the advantage of being able to negotiate meaning and make some conversational adjustments. Overall, language teachers should consider the use of tasks devised in a way that, on one hand, enhance the grammatical features in the input, and on the other hand, provide learners with opportunities to focus on meaning. (Piaget,

d. Connectivism Theory
In connectivism, the starting point for learning occurs when knowledge is actuated through the process of a learner connecting to and feeding information into a learning community. In the connectivist model, a learning community is described as a node, which is always part of a larger network. Nodes arise out of the connection points that are found on a network. A network is comprised of two or more nodes linked in order to share resources. Nodes may be of varying size and strength, depending on the concentration of information and the number of individuals who are navigating through a particular node. According to connectivism, knowledge is distributed across an information network and can be stored in a variety of digital formats. Siemens (2004) states, "A community is the clustering of similar areas of interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together. Learning and knowledge are said to «rest in diversity of opinions». Connectivism stresses that two important skills that contribute to learning are the ability to seek out current information, and the ability to filter secondary and extraneous information.
The ability to make decisions on the basis of information that has been acquired is considered integral to the learning process. The learning process is cyclical, in that learners will connect to a network to share and find new information, will modify their beliefs on the basis of new learning, and will then connect to a network to share these realizations and find new information once more. « Knowledge creation process. Not only knowledge consumption.» One's personal learning network is formed on the basis of how one's connection to learning communities are organized by a learner. Learners may transverse networks through multiple knowledge domains. The peripheries of knowledge fields are porous, allowing for the interdisciplinary connections to be made. Siemens asserts, «The ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill» . The connectivist metaphor is particularly timely, since the navigation of the Internet and the means by which information is dispersed on the Internet now provides a reference point for Siemens' assertions. Of course the number of learners who have been immersed in these technologies all their lives will grow, as the young are more predisposed to use the latest technologies and will displace the learners who have grown up with books and pen and paper as resources for learning. There is a need for educators to closely follow and influence the developments and the debates, and seriously research how their institutions can evolve using the emerging technologies to their and their learners' advantage. In doing so, they would ensure that education can secure its role of critical engager, and at the same time make the best use of technologythat is in making connections with information and knowledgeable others all over the world to enrich learners lives and the communities in which they live. A paradigm shift, indeed, may be occurring in educational theory, and a new epistemology may be emerging, but it does not seem that connectivism's contributions to the new paradigm warrant it being treated as a separate learning theory in and of its own right. Connectivism, however, continues to play an important role in the development and emergence of new pedagogies, where control is shifting from the tutor to an increasingly more autonomous learner. (Siemens,

e. Constructivism Theory
Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism.
According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center, Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development. Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. (Ernest,48) According to social constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops from individuals' interactions with their culture and society. Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky who suggested that, every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people and then inside the child.
The teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them. Constructivists believe that there are no enduring, context-free truths, that researcher bias cannot be eliminated, that multiple, socially constructed realities can only be studied holistically rather than in pieces, and that the possibility of generalizing from one research site to another is limited. Learning is seen as involving reorganization and reconstruction and it is through these processes that people internalize knowledge and perceive the world. In language teaching, constructivism has led to a focus on learning strategies, learner beliefs, teacher thinking and other aspects of learning which stress the individual and personal contributions of learners to learning. A constructivist view of teaching involves teachers in making their own sense of their classrooms and taking on the role of a reflective practitioner.
This theory associated with the works of Piaget and Vygotsky and turned back to 1980s, 1990s and early 2000.

Sociocultural Theory Differs From Constructivism
Both constructivism and sociocultural theory, when applied to learning, are concerned with the activities that children engage in to learn. However, constructivist theory suggests one should attend to the learning and mental representations of the individual while the sociocultural theory is more concerned with the ways in which learning is an act of enculturation.

The Three levels of Adequacy of Sociocultural Theory
Observational adequacy: It was argued that higher thinking processes needed for optimal professional practices are inherently social and start at the intermental level between and among people. Hence, for professional development to get realized, the teacher should participate in social activities and groups. The program designer of professional development should identify the needs and goals of the teacher trainees so that the less knowledgeable trainees can move up through higher stages of ZPD functioning under the supervision of more knowledgeable trainers. Mentoring and peer coaching are the examples of procedures through which the novice teachers could experience professional development under a more significant other's supervision and collegiality.
Descriptive adequacy: There should be sufficient time for the teacher learner to gain professional development. The pre-/in-service teachers who aspire to experience professional development could benefit from a range of options such as diary writing, electronic dialog journal, collaborative peers and mentors, TESOL discourse, conferences and workshops, and technological scaffolding so as to bring about a lifelong professional change in their ZPD.
Explanatory adequacy: The importance of external support or follow-up scaffolding after experiencing professional development. Like learning, professional development is a continuous and never-ending process. The teachers need in-service training after they have gone through professional development and when they are placed in their sociocultural instructional contexts. The tools in the form of expert guiding and assistance as an external source of mediation and signs as an internal source of mediation help the teacher extend his ZPD. Technology has proved to serve as a reliable source of electronic scaffolding and, thus, a positive change in teacher's professional development. Internet, computer, and associated software known as technological artifacts can mediate teacher's learning. Through sharing the instructional problems and challenges with each other, the teacher participants are provided with an opportunity to reach intersubjectivity,

IV. Conclusion
The study concludes with the idea that it was really surprise for researchers with the idea that socio cultural factors are necessary for the cognitive development of the child in language learning. His genuine contribution to education, psychology and applied linguistics. Through the analysis of different findings and studies, it seems meaningful to state that Vygotsky singled out and studied the dynamic social surroundings which indicate the connection between teacher and the child. However, he focused on the social, cultural and historical artifacts which play a pivotal role in the children's cognitive development as well as their potential performance. Major concepts discussed aforementioned reveal the remarkable achievement of socio-cultural theory in learning and teaching processes.